Father and son looking at a tablet, discussing taxes and potential savings from claiming dependents
Father and son looking at a tablet, discussing taxes and potential savings from claiming dependents

Do Dependents Reduce Taxable Income? Understanding Tax Benefits

Do Dependents Reduce Taxable Income? Yes, claiming dependents can significantly reduce your taxable income and potentially increase your tax refund. Income-partners.net provides valuable insights into navigating these tax benefits and maximizing your financial advantages through strategic partnerships and informed tax planning. We’ll explore how dependents impact your tax liability and guide you toward optimizing your financial situation. Discover opportunities to enhance your income, leverage tax deductions, and forge lucrative collaborations by using resources from income-partners.net.

Table of Contents

1. Understanding the Basics of Taxable Income and Dependents

Taxable income is the portion of your gross income that is subject to taxation by federal, state, and local governments. It’s calculated by subtracting deductions and exemptions from your adjusted gross income (AGI). According to the IRS, understanding how dependents affect this calculation is crucial for minimizing your tax liability. Dependents, in tax terms, are individuals who rely on you for financial support, such as children, relatives, or even non-relatives meeting specific criteria. Claiming a dependent allows you to reduce your taxable income through deductions and credits, thereby lowering the amount of tax you owe. Income-partners.net offers resources to help you strategically leverage these deductions and explore partnership opportunities to further enhance your financial position.

The basic formula for calculating taxable income is:

Gross Income – Adjustments to Income = Adjusted Gross Income (AGI)

AGI – Deductions (Standard or Itemized) – Qualified Business Income (QBI) Deduction = Taxable Income

Here’s a breakdown of each component:

  • Gross Income: This includes all income you receive in the form of money, property, and services that are not exempt from tax. Examples include wages, salaries, tips, investment income, and business income.
  • Adjustments to Income: These are specific deductions you can take to reduce your gross income, such as contributions to traditional IRAs, student loan interest payments, and self-employment tax.
  • Adjusted Gross Income (AGI): This is your gross income minus adjustments. AGI is an important figure because it’s used to calculate many other deductions and credits.
  • Deductions (Standard or Itemized): You can choose to take the standard deduction, which is a fixed amount based on your filing status, or itemize deductions if your itemized deductions exceed the standard deduction. Itemized deductions include expenses like medical expenses, state and local taxes (SALT), and charitable contributions.
  • Qualified Business Income (QBI) Deduction: If you own a pass-through business (e.g., sole proprietorship, partnership, S corporation), you may be able to deduct up to 20% of your qualified business income.
  • Taxable Income: This is the amount of income that is ultimately subject to income tax. The lower your taxable income, the lower your tax liability.

The Role of Dependents in Reducing Taxable Income

Claiming dependents can significantly reduce your taxable income through several avenues:

  • Dependent Deduction: While the personal and dependent exemptions were suspended from 2018 through 2025, the Child Tax Credit and the Credit for Other Dependents have increased, offering significant tax relief.
  • Tax Credits: Claiming dependents can make you eligible for various tax credits, such as the Child Tax Credit, the Child and Dependent Care Credit, and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC).
  • Head of Household Status: If you are unmarried and pay more than half the costs of keeping up a home for a qualifying child, you may be able to file as Head of Household, which has a more generous standard deduction and lower tax rates than Single filing status.

Why Understanding Taxable Income Is Crucial

Understanding how taxable income is calculated and how dependents factor into the equation is essential for effective tax planning. By strategically managing your deductions and credits, you can minimize your tax liability and optimize your financial situation. Additionally, exploring resources like income-partners.net can provide you with insights into potential partnership opportunities and strategies for further income enhancement.

Example Scenario

Let’s illustrate with an example:

Scenario: John is single and has a gross income of $60,000. He contributes $5,000 to a traditional IRA and pays $2,000 in student loan interest. He has one qualifying child for whom he provides full support.

  1. Gross Income: $60,000
  2. Adjustments to Income: $5,000 (IRA) + $2,000 (Student Loan Interest) = $7,000
  3. Adjusted Gross Income (AGI): $60,000 – $7,000 = $53,000
  4. Deduction: Let’s assume the standard deduction for a single individual in 2024 is $14,600.
  5. Taxable Income: $53,000 – $14,600 = $38,400

Now, let’s consider the Child Tax Credit. If John’s child qualifies, he may be eligible for a credit of up to $2,000. This credit directly reduces his tax liability.

Tax Liability Before Credit: Assuming a tax rate of 12% on the taxable income of $38,400, the tax liability is $4,608.

Tax Liability After Credit: With a $2,000 Child Tax Credit, John’s tax liability is reduced to $2,608.

In this example, claiming a dependent not only reduces taxable income but also provides a valuable tax credit, resulting in significant tax savings.

By understanding these basics and seeking expert advice from sites like income-partners.net, you can make informed decisions to optimize your tax strategy and financial well-being.

2. Who Qualifies as a Dependent? Key IRS Criteria

Determining who qualifies as a dependent is governed by specific IRS rules. Generally, a dependent must be either a qualifying child or a qualifying relative. According to IRS Publication 501, understanding these rules ensures you can accurately claim eligible dependents and maximize your tax benefits. Income-partners.net can further assist by providing insights into how these benefits impact your overall income strategy and partnership opportunities.

To claim someone as a dependent, they must meet certain criteria. The IRS broadly categorizes dependents into two types: Qualifying Child and Qualifying Relative.

Qualifying Child

To be considered a qualifying child, the dependent must meet all of the following tests:

  1. Age Test:

    • The child must be under age 19 at the end of the year.
    • Or, the child must be under age 24 and a full-time student.
    • Or, the child must be any age and permanently and totally disabled.
  2. Residency Test: The child must live with you for more than half of the tax year. Temporary absences, such as for school, medical care, or vacation, are generally counted as time lived at home.

  3. Relationship Test: The child must be your son, daughter, stepchild, foster child, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, stepbrother, stepsister, or a descendant of any of them (e.g., grandchild, niece, nephew).

  4. Support Test: The child must not have provided more than half of their own financial support for the year. This includes money, property, and other means of support.

  5. Joint Return Test: The child cannot file a joint return with their spouse unless the only reason for filing is to claim a refund of withheld taxes or estimated taxes paid.

Qualifying Relative

If the person you are trying to claim is not a qualifying child, they may qualify as a qualifying relative. To be a qualifying relative, the dependent must meet all of the following tests:

  1. Not a Qualifying Child Test: The person cannot be claimed as a qualifying child by you or anyone else.

  2. Gross Income Test: The dependent’s gross income must be less than $4,700 for 2024. Gross income includes all income in the form of money, property, and services that are not exempt from tax.

  3. Support Test: You must provide more than half of the dependent’s total support for the year. Support includes food, lodging, clothing, medical and dental care, recreation, transportation, and other similar necessities.

  4. Relationship or Member of Household Test: The person must be one of the following:

    • Your child, stepchild, foster child, or a descendant of any of them.
    • Your brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, stepbrother, or stepsister.
    • Your father, mother, ancestor, stepfather, or stepmother.
    • Your niece, nephew, aunt, uncle, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, or sister-in-law.
    • Or, the person must live with you all year as a member of your household. Note that this relationship is not illegal under local law.

Special Situations and Considerations

  • Divorced or Separated Parents: Special rules apply for divorced or separated parents regarding which parent can claim the child as a dependent. Generally, the custodial parent (the parent with whom the child lives for the greater part of the year) can claim the child as a dependent. However, the custodial parent can release the claim to the noncustodial parent by signing Form 8332, Release/Revocation of Release of Claim to Exemption for Child by Custodial Parent.
  • Multiple Support Agreement: If no one person provides more than half of an individual’s support, but multiple people together provide more than half, they can enter into a multiple support agreement. In this case, one of the individuals who provides more than 10% of the support can claim the dependent, provided that the others who provide more than 10% agree not to claim the person as a dependent.
  • Foster Children: A foster child can be claimed as a dependent if they meet the qualifying child tests, including living with you as a member of your household for the entire year.

Examples to Illustrate Qualification

  1. Example 1: Qualifying Child

    • Sarah is 17 years old and lives with her parents. She attends high school full-time. Her parents provide all of her financial support. Sarah meets all the tests for a qualifying child and can be claimed as a dependent by her parents.
  2. Example 2: Qualifying Relative

    • John’s mother, Mary, lives with him. Mary’s only income is $4,000 in Social Security benefits. John provides more than half of her support, including housing, food, and medical care. Mary meets the tests for a qualifying relative and can be claimed as a dependent by John.
  3. Example 3: Divorced Parents

    • Lisa and Tom are divorced. Their child, Emily, lives with Lisa for 220 nights of the year and with Tom for 145 nights. Lisa provides more than half of Emily’s support. Lisa can claim Emily as a dependent unless she signs Form 8332 to release the claim to Tom.

Resources for Further Information

  • IRS Publication 501 (Dependents, Standard Deduction, and Filing Information): This publication provides detailed information on the rules for claiming dependents.
  • IRS Website: The IRS website offers various tools and resources to help you determine if someone qualifies as your dependent.
  • Tax Professionals: Consulting with a tax professional can provide personalized advice based on your specific situation.

Understanding these criteria and consulting resources like income-partners.net will help you accurately determine who you can claim as a dependent, maximizing your tax benefits and overall financial strategy.

Father and son looking at a tablet, discussing taxes and potential savings from claiming dependentsFather and son looking at a tablet, discussing taxes and potential savings from claiming dependents

3. The Impact of Dependents on Tax Brackets and Rates

Claiming dependents can influence your tax bracket and the applicable tax rates, potentially leading to significant tax savings. According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), understanding how these deductions and credits shift your taxable income is vital for effective tax planning. Income-partners.net can provide further guidance on optimizing your financial strategy by exploring partnership opportunities and maximizing tax benefits related to dependents.

Tax brackets are income ranges that are taxed at different rates. The U.S. federal income tax system is progressive, meaning that as your income increases, the tax rate also increases, but only for the income that falls into the higher tax bracket. Claiming dependents can reduce your taxable income, potentially shifting you into a lower tax bracket and lowering your overall tax liability.

How Tax Brackets Work

Tax brackets are determined annually by the IRS and are based on your filing status (e.g., single, married filing jointly, head of household). For the 2024 tax year, the tax brackets are as follows:

Single Filers:

Tax Rate Income Range
10% $0 to $11,600
12% $11,601 to $47,150
22% $47,151 to $100,525
24% $100,526 to $191,950
32% $191,951 to $243,725
35% $243,726 to $609,350
37% Over $609,350

Married Filing Jointly:

Tax Rate Income Range
10% $0 to $23,200
12% $23,201 to $94,300
22% $94,301 to $201,050
24% $201,051 to $383,900
32% $383,901 to $487,450
35% $487,451 to $731,200
37% Over $731,200

Head of Household:

Tax Rate Income Range
10% $0 to $17,400
12% $17,401 to $70,950
22% $70,951 to $172,750
24% $172,751 to $259,750
32% $259,751 to $518,400
35% $518,401 to $647,950
37% Over $647,950

Impact of Dependents on Tax Brackets

When you claim a dependent, you may be eligible for various tax benefits that reduce your taxable income. These benefits include:

  • Child Tax Credit: This credit can reduce your tax liability by up to $2,000 per qualifying child.
  • Credit for Other Dependents: This credit provides up to $500 for each qualifying dependent who is not a qualifying child.
  • Child and Dependent Care Credit: If you pay for childcare expenses to enable you to work or look for work, you may be eligible for this credit, which can further reduce your tax liability.
  • Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): This credit is available to low-to-moderate income individuals and families, and the amount of the credit varies depending on the number of qualifying children.
  • Head of Household Filing Status: If you are unmarried and pay more than half the costs of keeping up a home for a qualifying child, you may be able to file as Head of Household, which has a more generous standard deduction and lower tax rates than Single filing status.

Example Scenario

Let’s consider an example to illustrate how claiming dependents can impact your tax bracket:

Scenario: Sarah is single and has a gross income of $50,000. She has one qualifying child and is eligible to claim the Child Tax Credit.

  1. Gross Income: $50,000
  2. Standard Deduction (Single): $14,600 (for 2024)
  3. Taxable Income Before Child Tax Credit: $50,000 – $14,600 = $35,400

Without considering the Child Tax Credit, Sarah’s taxable income of $35,400 falls into the 12% tax bracket.

Now, let’s factor in the Child Tax Credit of $2,000. This credit directly reduces her tax liability:

  • Tax Liability Before Credit: (10% of $11,600) + (12% of ($35,400 – $11,600)) = $1,160 + $2,856 = $4,016
  • Tax Liability After Credit: $4,016 – $2,000 = $2,016

In this case, the Child Tax Credit significantly reduces Sarah’s tax liability. While it doesn’t shift her into a lower tax bracket, the direct reduction in tax owed is a substantial benefit.

However, if Sarah had other deductions or credits that further reduced her taxable income, it’s possible that claiming her child could shift her into a lower tax bracket. For instance, if Sarah contributed $5,000 to a traditional IRA, her taxable income would be:

  • Taxable Income: $35,400 – $5,000 = $30,400

In this scenario, her tax liability before the Child Tax Credit would be:

  • (10% of $11,600) + (12% of ($30,400 – $11,600)) = $1,160 + $2,256 = $3,416

And after the Child Tax Credit:

  • $3,416 – $2,000 = $1,416

Head of Household Filing Status

If Sarah were unmarried and paying more than half the costs of keeping up a home for her child, she could file as Head of Household. The standard deduction for Head of Household is $21,900 for 2024, which is higher than the standard deduction for Single filers. This would further reduce her taxable income and potentially lower her tax liability.

Strategic Tax Planning

To optimize your tax situation, it’s essential to:

  1. Accurately Determine Dependents: Ensure that you meet all the IRS criteria for claiming dependents.
  2. Maximize Deductions and Credits: Take advantage of all available deductions and credits, such as the Child Tax Credit, Child and Dependent Care Credit, and Earned Income Tax Credit.
  3. Consider Filing Status: Determine the most beneficial filing status for your situation, such as Head of Household if you qualify.
  4. Plan for the Long Term: Review your tax strategy annually to ensure you are taking advantage of any changes in tax laws or regulations.

By understanding how dependents impact your tax bracket and rates and by engaging in strategic tax planning, you can minimize your tax liability and optimize your financial situation. Resources like income-partners.net can provide valuable insights into partnership opportunities and strategies for further income enhancement.

4. Child Tax Credit vs. Dependent Care Credit: Maximizing Benefits

The Child Tax Credit and the Dependent Care Credit are two key tax benefits aimed at helping families, but they serve different purposes and have distinct eligibility requirements. According to the Tax Policy Center, understanding these differences is crucial for maximizing your tax savings. Income-partners.net can provide additional strategies for optimizing your financial situation through strategic partnerships and informed tax planning.

Child Tax Credit

The Child Tax Credit is designed to provide financial relief to families with qualifying children.

Key Features:

  • Credit Amount: Up to $2,000 per qualifying child for 2024.

  • Refundable Portion: A portion of the credit is refundable, meaning you can receive it as a tax refund even if you don’t owe any taxes. The refundable amount is capped at $1,600 per child for 2024.

  • Qualifying Child: To qualify, the child must:

    • Be under age 17 at the end of the tax year.
    • Be your son, daughter, stepchild, foster child, brother, sister, stepbrother, stepsister, or a descendant of any of them (e.g., grandchild, niece, nephew).
    • Not have provided more than half of their own financial support for the year.
    • Have lived with you for more than half the year.
    • Be claimed as a dependent on your return.
    • Be a U.S. citizen, U.S. national, or U.S. resident alien.
  • Income Limits: The Child Tax Credit begins to phase out for taxpayers with higher incomes. For 2024, the phase-out begins at $200,000 for single filers and $400,000 for married filing jointly.

Child and Dependent Care Credit

The Child and Dependent Care Credit is designed to help taxpayers who pay for childcare expenses to enable them to work or look for work.

Key Features:

  • Credit Amount: The amount of the credit depends on your income and the amount of qualifying expenses. You can claim up to 35% of qualifying expenses, with a maximum of $3,000 for one qualifying individual or $6,000 for two or more qualifying individuals.

  • Qualifying Expenses: These include expenses for the care of a qualifying individual to enable you to work or look for work. Examples include daycare, babysitters, and after-school programs.

  • Qualifying Individual: To qualify, the individual must be:

    • Under age 13.
    • Or, physically or mentally incapable of self-care and lived with you for more than half the year.
    • Or, your spouse who is physically or mentally incapable of self-care and lived with you for more than half the year.
  • Work-Related Requirement: To claim the credit, you (and your spouse, if filing jointly) must be working or looking for work.

  • Earned Income Requirement: You must have earned income during the year to claim the credit.

  • Income Limits: The percentage of qualifying expenses you can claim decreases as your income increases.

Key Differences Between the Two Credits

Feature Child Tax Credit Child and Dependent Care Credit
Purpose Provides financial relief to families with qualifying children. Helps taxpayers who pay for childcare expenses to enable them to work or look for work.
Credit Amount Up to $2,000 per qualifying child (for 2024). Up to 35% of qualifying expenses, with a maximum of $3,000 for one qualifying individual or $6,000 for two or more qualifying individuals.
Qualifying Individual Child must be under age 17, your son, daughter, stepchild, foster child, brother, sister, stepbrother, stepsister, or a descendant of any of them, and meet other requirements. Individual must be under age 13, physically or mentally incapable of self-care, or your spouse who is physically or mentally incapable of self-care.
Work Requirement Not required. You (and your spouse, if filing jointly) must be working or looking for work.
Income Limits Credit begins to phase out for taxpayers with higher incomes (starting at $200,000 for single filers and $400,000 for married filing jointly). The percentage of qualifying expenses you can claim decreases as your income increases.
Refundable A portion of the credit is refundable (up to $1,600 per child for 2024). Not refundable.

Maximizing Benefits: Strategic Planning

To maximize the benefits of both credits, consider the following strategies:

  1. Determine Eligibility: Ensure that you meet all the eligibility requirements for both credits.
  2. Calculate Expenses: Keep accurate records of all qualifying expenses for both credits.
  3. Coordinate with Dependent Care FSA: If you have a Dependent Care FSA, coordinate your expenses to maximize both the FSA and the Child and Dependent Care Credit.
  4. Consider Income Limits: Be aware of the income limits for both credits and plan accordingly.
  5. Seek Professional Advice: Consult with a tax professional to ensure that you are taking advantage of all available tax benefits.

Example Scenario

Scenario: John and Mary are married and have one child, Emily, who is 6 years old. John works full-time, and Mary works part-time. They pay $4,000 for Emily’s daycare during the year. Their adjusted gross income (AGI) is $60,000.

  • Child Tax Credit: John and Mary are eligible for the Child Tax Credit of $2,000 for Emily.

  • Child and Dependent Care Credit: They can claim the Child and Dependent Care Credit for the daycare expenses. Since their AGI is $60,000, they can claim 20% of the expenses.

    • Qualifying Expenses: $4,000
    • Credit Amount: 20% of $4,000 = $800

In this scenario, John and Mary can benefit from both the Child Tax Credit and the Child and Dependent Care Credit, reducing their overall tax liability.

Additional Resources

  • IRS Publication 972 (Child Tax Credit): Provides detailed information on the Child Tax Credit.
  • IRS Publication 503 (Child and Dependent Care Expenses): Provides detailed information on the Child and Dependent Care Credit.
  • Tax Professionals: Consulting with a tax professional can provide personalized advice based on your specific situation.

By understanding the differences between the Child Tax Credit and the Child and Dependent Care Credit and by engaging in strategic tax planning, you can maximize the benefits of both credits and optimize your financial situation. Resources like income-partners.net can provide valuable insights into partnership opportunities and strategies for further income enhancement.

5. Dependent Care FSA: A Pre-Tax Savings Strategy

A Dependent Care Flexible Spending Account (FSA) is a pre-tax benefit account used to pay for eligible dependent care services, such as daycare, preschool, and after-school programs. According to the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), understanding how to utilize a Dependent Care FSA can lead to significant tax savings. income-partners.net offers resources to help you optimize your financial planning by exploring partnership opportunities and maximizing tax benefits related to dependent care.

What is a Dependent Care FSA?

A Dependent Care FSA allows you to set aside pre-tax dollars from your paycheck to cover eligible dependent care expenses. This means the money you contribute to the FSA is not subject to federal income tax, Social Security tax, or Medicare tax, resulting in significant tax savings.

Key Features:

  • Pre-Tax Contributions: Contributions are made before taxes, reducing your taxable income.

  • Eligible Expenses: Funds can be used for a variety of dependent care services, including:

    • Daycare
    • Preschool
    • Before and after-school programs
    • Summer day camps
    • Care for a disabled spouse or dependent
  • Contribution Limits: The maximum amount that can be excluded from an employee’s income through a dependent care assistance program is $5,000 (or $2,500 if married filing separately) for 2024.

  • Use-It-Or-Lose-It Rule: Generally, funds must be used within the plan year, or they are forfeited. However, some plans may offer a grace period or a carryover option.

Eligibility Requirements

To be eligible for a Dependent Care FSA, you must meet the following requirements:

  1. Employment: You (and your spouse, if filing jointly) must be employed, looking for work, or attending school full-time.

  2. Qualifying Individual: The care must be for a qualifying individual, who is:

    • A child under age 13 who can be claimed as a dependent on your tax return.
    • Your spouse who is physically or mentally incapable of self-care.
    • Any other dependent, regardless of age, who is physically or mentally incapable of self-care and lives with you for more than half the year.
  3. Work-Related Expenses: The expenses must be work-related, meaning they allow you (and your spouse, if filing jointly) to work or look for work.

How a Dependent Care FSA Works

  1. Enrollment: During your employer’s open enrollment period, you elect to contribute to a Dependent Care FSA for the upcoming plan year.
  2. Contributions: Your elected amount is deducted from your paycheck on a pre-tax basis and deposited into your FSA account.
  3. Expenses: You incur eligible dependent care expenses throughout the year.
  4. Reimbursement: You submit a claim to your FSA administrator with documentation of the expenses. The administrator reimburses you from your FSA account.

Tax Savings with a Dependent Care FSA

The tax savings from a Dependent Care FSA can be significant. By contributing pre-tax dollars, you reduce your taxable income, resulting in lower federal income tax, Social Security tax, and Medicare tax.

Example Scenario:

Scenario: John and Mary are married and have one child, Emily, who is 4 years old. They both work full-time. They estimate their annual daycare expenses to be $5,000. They contribute $5,000 to a Dependent Care FSA. Their combined income is $80,000.

Without the FSA:

  • Taxable Income: $80,000
  • Federal Income Tax (Estimated): $8,000 (assuming a 10% tax rate)
  • Social Security Tax (6.2%): $4,960
  • Medicare Tax (1.45%): $1,160
  • Total Taxes: $14,120

With the FSA:

  • Taxable Income: $80,000 – $5,000 = $75,000
  • Federal Income Tax (Estimated): $7,500 (assuming a 10% tax rate)
  • Social Security Tax (6.2%): $4,650
  • Medicare Tax (1.45%): $1,087.50
  • Total Taxes: $13,237.50

Tax Savings: $14,120 – $13,237.50 = $882.50

In this example, John and Mary save $882.50 in taxes by contributing $5,000 to a Dependent Care FSA.

Dependent Care FSA vs. Child and Dependent Care Credit

It’s important to note that you cannot “double dip” by claiming both the full Dependent Care FSA benefit and the full Child and Dependent Care Credit for the same expenses. However, you can coordinate the two to maximize your tax benefits.

If you contribute to a Dependent Care FSA, you can only claim the Child and Dependent Care Credit for expenses exceeding the amount you contributed to the FSA.

Example:

Scenario: Lisa contributes $3,000 to a Dependent Care FSA. Her total dependent care expenses for the year are $5,000. She can only claim the Child and Dependent Care Credit for the remaining $2,000 in expenses.

Tips for Managing a Dependent Care FSA

  1. Estimate Expenses Accurately: Estimate your dependent care expenses carefully to avoid over- or under-contributing.
  2. Understand Eligible Expenses: Familiarize yourself with the list of eligible expenses to ensure that you are using your FSA funds appropriately.
  3. Keep Documentation: Keep detailed records of all dependent care expenses, including receipts and invoices.
  4. Submit Claims Promptly: Submit claims to your FSA administrator promptly to ensure timely reimbursement.
  5. Be Aware of Deadlines: Be aware of the deadlines for using your FSA funds and submitting claims.
  6. Coordinate with Tax Credits: Coordinate your FSA contributions with the Child and Dependent Care Credit to maximize your overall tax benefits.

Resources for Further Information

  • **IRS Publication

Comments

No comments yet. Why don’t you start the discussion?

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *